Improve the performance of reading belongs_to associations

`ActiveRecord::Base#[]` has overhead that was introduced in 4.2. The
`foo["id"]` working with PKs other than ID isn't really a case that we
want to support publicly, but deprecating was painful enough that we
avoid it. `_read_attribute` was introduced as the faster alternative for
use internally. By using that, we can save a lot of overhead. We also
save some overhead by reading the attribute one fewer times in
`stale_state`.

Fixes #18151

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